The Audience of the Imperial Pilgrimages to Wutai shan
Now that it is clear that the Qing had a reason, beyond subordinating the Mongols, for supporting Tibetan Buddhism at Wutai shan, we must ask how and to whom they communicated their support of this prominent Buddhist site. Given the multitude of reliable source materials, it can easily be established that the Qing emperors went to some length to establish their patronage of Buddhism at Wutai shan as a public event, and not just a spectacle for the consumption of Mongolian Tibetan Buddhists. The emperors communicated their support in person, through visits to the site, and in writing, especially through the publication of gazetteers but also through the distribution of stelae and placards.
[page 177] One way the Kangxi emperor communicated his personal support of Wutai shan was by calling regional and local officials to witness his pilgrimage to the site. If the purpose of patronizing Buddhism at Wutai shan had been merely to demonstrate to the Mongols that the Qing were active sponsors of Tibetan Buddhism, then we would expect two things. First, Mongol princes and not Chinese or Manchu officials would be called to attend him, and second, he would only patronize Tibetan Buddhism. Neither of these situations was exclusively the case.60 In 1683, on the first Qing imperial pilgrimage to the mountain, the Shanxi governor and surveillance commissioner, as well as the local magistrate of Wutai County all came to pay homage to the emperor at Pusa Ding, the central temple of Mount Wutai and the temporary palace (Xinggong) of the emperor when on the mountain. They stayed with the emperor throughout his visit.61 Again, on the Kangxi emperor’s third pilgrimage to the mountain in 1698, the Shanxi governor, the provincial military commander (a man from the Hanlin Academy, and the Datong regional military commander came to pay homage to the emperor.62 This visit was exceptional in being marked by the presence of numerous Mongol princes.63 The emperor’s fifth and final visit to the mountain, in 1710, is the only other visit in which a man identifiable as a Mongol paid homage to the emperor.64 At this time, an imperial clansman and right-wing general, two vice-commanders-in-chief of banners (it is not specified whether Manchu, Chinese-martial, or Mongol), and the Guihua City commander-in-chief came to pay homage to the emperor. The latter figure can be probably be identified by his name, Wuji, as a Mongol.65 This meager Mongol [page 178] presence demonstrates the weakness of the contention that the patronage of Wutai shan might have been principally directed towards convincing the Mongols of Qing patronage of the Buddhist site.66
There are two interesting aspects to the specific registers of Wutai shan activity (whether Confucian Chinese, Buddhist Chinese, or Manchu bureaucratic). First, they reveal the bias of the producers, and second, they reveal the complicity of the emperor with these productions. In the context of the Confucian-centric Chinese court, the emperor was willing to allow the object of his attention on the mountain to be the common people, with almost all association to Buddhism erased from their persons.67 In contrast, the Chinese-language Buddhist-centric gazetteers inform us of radically different activity, equally sanctioned by the emperor, in the form of gifts and rewards being showered on Buddhist, especially the leading Tibetan Buddhist, establishments. In addition, in the privacy of Manchu communication from the Shanxi governor, Gali, a specifically Manchu perspective is revealed. Gali memorialized that gentry and commoners from throughout the province, led by a Chinese named Zhang Jishan, wished to establish a longevity (wanshou) stele pavilion at Pusa Ding (the emperor’s temporary palace on his visits) where the court’s Tibetan Buddhist monks recited sutras for the emperor and empress dowager’s birthdays. This, by the way, is clear evidence that lay Chinese Buddhists were well aware of the presence and importance of Tibetan Buddhist leaders at Wutai shan and their role in praying for the emperor’s longevity.68 And the governor’s thoughts on the matter again had nothing to do with Mongols. Instead, he commented that, “as people from all the provinces come to Wutai shan to offer incense,” having such a pavilion on the elevated site of the emperor’s monastery would cause people to look up with reverence for ten thousand years.69 To this expression of concern for what the Chinese saw when they went on pilgrimage to Wutai shan, the emperor gave the nod, with a simple acknowledgment that he has [page 179] received the information.70 This variety of audiences even within the Chinese-language source material suggests that Crossley’s valuable conceptions of constituencies based on language (Chinese, Manchu, Mongol, Tibetan and Uighur) needs to be further articulated, separating at least Chinese Confucians from Chinese Buddhists.71
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Note Citation for Page
Gray Tuttle, “Tibetan Buddhism at Wutai Shan in the Qing: The Chinese-language Register,” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 6 (December 2011): , http://www.thlib.org?tid=T5721 (accessed ).
Note Citation for Whole Article
Gray Tuttle, “Tibetan Buddhism at Wutai Shan in the Qing: The Chinese-language Register,” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 6 (December 2011): 163-214, http://www.thlib.org?tid=T5721 (accessed ).
Bibliography Citation
Tuttle, Gray. “Tibetan Buddhism at Wutai Shan in the Qing: The Chinese-language Register.” Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies, no. 6 (December 2011): 163-214. http://www.thlib.org?tid=T5721 (accessed ).
JIATS Issue 6 Home
Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Historical Introduction
- Imperial Patronage of Wutai shan: Rituals and Rewards
- Imperial Benefice at Wutai shan
- The Audience of the Imperial Pilgrimages to Wutai shan
- Alternate Registers: Imperial Literary Production Devoted to Wutai shan
- Non-Tibetan Head LamaBla mas as Leaders of Wutai shan
- Appendix 1: Wutai shan Texts List
- Appendix 2: Prominent Tibetan Buddhists at Wutai shan in the Shunzhi and Kangxi Reigns
- Appendix 3: Tibetan Titles/Names for Qing Emperors (phonetics underlined)
- Glossary
- Bibliography
- Notes
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